that there is a clear differentiation between pain and suffering – they are not the same. Pain is the
sensation triggered by a physical experience, while suffering is the mental experience of
dissatisfaction, displeasure and distress (see also
). While these two sensations are
often experienced together, they do not necessarily manifest themselves at the same time: pain
and suffering can clearly be experienced independently.
Underlying all these superficial and rather coarse forms of suffering, however, is another presence:
a constant degree of dissatisfaction, an ongoing sensation of restlessness, a feeling of wanting one
thing and not wanting another. This is the third kind of suffering called the “all-pervasive suffering”.
This suffering is closely related to our mental tendency towards clinging and aversion. The main
cause of its arising and presence is not principally related to the body, but much more to the fact
that we fabricate a mental image of reality. We are attached to pleasurable objects, sounds, odors,
tastes and feelings, and because of that, we think that they are real and that they are genuine
sources of our happiness. Conversely, aversion arises to whatever interferes with and threatens
those pleasing sensations and attractive objects. Although we resist it, the evident fact is that
nothing is a continued source of pleasure. We accordingly misapprehend reality. Now, if we look
closer and deeper, neither sensations nor objects exist independently of each other. Nor do they
have an existence that is independent of how they appear to us, how we perceive them, and what
we project into them. This misapprehension is called ignorance. In this context, ignorance is not
understood to be a lack of knowing everything (such as the content of every book written), but
holding a wrong view of reality.
It is important to understand that mental experiences such as sadness, happiness, attachment and
aversion, as well as compassion and insight, are not independent phenomena. Although these
experiences manifest themselves within the mind, they are not the mind itself. They are caused,
and accordingly change, and because they are variable they can be altered and, with the right
antidotes, even replaced. On the other hand, it is also a fact that certain mental states cannot exist
at the same time, such as hatred and loving-kindness. A deeper investigation of how mental
phenomena arise, remain and disappear reveals that mental perceptions are co-dependently
produced and empty of a solid quality. In order to overcome suffering, one needs to develop both
wisdom and compassion, as it is not possible to understand (=wisdom) and develop the antidotes
(=compassion) to one without the other. It is therefore crucial to think of compassion not only as a
technique, method or as training, but as something that affects deeper traits of human nature and
is closely related to wisdom (see also
and
on training).
At this point we will not explore the concept of ignorance much further, but suffice it to say that
Buddhist practice and studies are specifically concerned with this third level of suffering and its
causes. Knowing this third level – understanding reality, interdependence, impermanence and the
wrong apprehension of “self” – is at the core of Buddhist practice: not properly understanding how
the mind creates an illusion of reality is considered the main cause of suffering. It is the alleviation
of this third form of suffering where the Buddhist tradition has boundless wealth and wisdom to
offer.
If we look at how the modern world operates, it becomes obvious that it is primarily concerned with
the avoidance of the first two forms of suffering, the “suffering of suffering” and the “suffering of
change”. This is one of the limitations of a hedonistic self-centered lifestyle, where one is primarily
concerned with one’s personal pleasures and where one tries to ensure that the external condition
of one’s well-being does not change (and if it does, then only towards more favorable situations,
and preferably with our consent). But what happens when a mental crisis hits us? When we lack
self-esteem, feel sad, are despondent, angry or frustrated? When our mental balance is thrown
out of its temporary poise? What we are experiencing at such unwarranted moments is “all-
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